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Subject: Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 1.9html)
                                     
   by Christopher Siren, 1992,1994
   
   cbsiren@hopper.unh.edu[LINK]
   
   This FAQ is posted on the third of every month to alt.mythology.
   The latest copy of this FAQ is available via anonymous ftp
   pending *.answers approval at:
   
   rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/mythology/sumer-faq
   
   last changes: August 13, 1997: added much more historical
   introductory material.
   March 20, 1996: cleaned up some misleading references to Kur.
   March 1, 1996: added the reference to Adapa's dictionary.
   Feb 3, 1996: fixed a formating problem in the sources area and
   added the full title "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" to
   the Biblical ref's section.
   Nov 13, 1995: fixed a couple of problems with some internal
   links.
   Nov 2, 1995: added some short notes about the primary deities,
   Ninhursag, and the Dilmun/Eden parallel to clarify some issues.
   October 6th, 1996: added a link to the "dictionary" and brief
   reviews of the sources and other relavant books.
   
   Adapa (Dan Sullivan) has constructed a more complete
   Sumerian-English dictionary at:
   http://web2.airmail.net/apkallu7/
   
   I have constructed a rudimentary Sumerian-English, English
   Sumerian dictionary using Kramer's The Sumerians and Jacobsen's
   Treasures of Darkness. Interested parties may contact me at:
   cbsiren@hopper.unh.edu. note: This FAQ is largely based on an
   anthropology paper which I wrote in 1992, using the sources
   detailed below.
   
Contents:

     * I. History and Overview
     * II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
     * III. What Deities did they worship?
          + A. The Four Primary Dieties
          + B. The Seven who decreed fate
          + C. The Annuna and others
     * IV. What about the Underworld?
     * V. What are me anyway?
     * VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in
       Sumerian literature. What are they?
     * VII. Source material
     * VIII. Other books of interest.
       
I. History and Overview -

   Sumer is very likely the first civilization in the world. From
   its beginings as a collection of farming villages around 5000 BC,
   through its conquest by Sargon of Agade around 2370 BC and its
   final collapse under the Amorites around 2000 BC, the Sumerians
   developed a religion and a society which influenced both their
   neighbors and their conquerers. Sumerian cuneform, the earliest
   written language, was borrowed by the Babylonians, who also took
   many of their religious beliefs. In fact, traces and parallels of
   Sumerian myth can be found in Genesis.
   
    History
    
   Sumer was a collection of city states around the Lower Tigris and
   Euphrates rivers in what is now southern Iraq. Each of these
   cities had individual rulers, although as early as the mid-fourth
   millenium BC the leader of the dominant city could have been
   considered the king of the region. The history of Sumer tends to
   be divided into five periods. They are the Uruk period, which saw
   the dominance of the city of that same name, the Jemdat Nasr
   period, the Early Dynastic periods, the Agade period, and the Ur
   III period - the entire span lasting from 3800 BC to around 2000
   BC. In addition, there is evidence of the Sumerians in the area
   both prior to the Uruk period and after the Ur III Dynastic
   period, but relatively little is known about the former age and
   the latter time period is most heavily dominated by the
   Babylonians.
   
   The Uruk period, stretched from 3800 BC to 3200 BC. It is to this
   era that the Sumerian King Lists ascribe the reigns of Dumuzi the
   shepherd, and the other ante-diluvian kings. After his reign
   Dumuzi was worshiped as the god of the spring grains. This time
   saw an enormous growth in urbanization such that Uruk probably
   had a population around 45,000 at the period's end. It was easily
   the largest city in the area, although the older cities of Eridu
   to the south and Kish to the north may have rivaled it.
   Irrigation improvements as well as a supply of raw materials for
   craftsmen provided an impetus for this growth. In fact, the city
   of An and Inanna also seems to have been at the heart of a trade
   network which stretched from what is now southern Turkey to what
   is now eastern Iran. In addition people were drawn to the city by
   the great temples there.
   
   The Eanna of Uruk, a collection of temples dedicated to Inanna,
   was constructed at this time and bore many mosaics and frescoes.
   These buildings served civic as well as religious purposes, which
   was fitting as the en, or high priest, served as both the
   spiritual and temporal leader. The temples were places where
   craftsmen would practice their trades and where surplus food
   would be stored and distributed.
   
   The Jemdat Nasr period lasted from 3200 BC to 2900 BC. It was not
   particularly remarkable and most adequately described as an
   extenson and slowing down of the Uruk period. This is the period
   during which the great flood is supposed to have taken place. The
   Sumerians' account of the flood may have been based on a
   simultaneous flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers onto
   their already marshy country.
   
   The Early Dynastic period ran from 2900 BC to 2370 BC and it is
   this period for which we begin to have more reliable written
   accounts although some of the great kings of this era later
   evolved mythic tales about them and were deified. Kingship moved
   about 100 miles upriver and about 50 miles south of modern
   Bahgdad to the city of Kish. One of the earlier kings in Kish was
   Etana who "stabilized all the lands" securing the First Dynasty
   of Kish and establishing rule over Sumer and some of its
   neighbors. Etana was later believed by the Babylonians to have
   rode to heaven on the back of a giant Eagle so that he could
   receive the "plant of birth" from Ishtar (their version of
   Inanna) and thereby produce an heir.
   
   Meanwhile, in the south, the Dynasty of Erech was founded by
   Meskiaggasher, who, along with his successors, was termed the
   "son of Utu", the sun-god. Following three other kings, including
   another Dumuzi, the famous Gilgamesh took the throne of Erech
   around 2600 BC and became in volved in a power struggle for the
   region with the Kish Dynasts and with Mesannepadda, the founder
   of the Dynasty of Ur. While Gilgamesh became a demi-god,
   remembered in epic tales, it was Mesannepadda who was eventually
   victorious in this three-way power struggle, taking the by then
   traditional title of "King of Kish".
   
   Although the dynasties of Kish and Eresh fell by the wayside, Ur
   could not retain a strong hold over all of Sumer. The entire
   region was weakened by the struggle and individual city-states
   continued more or less independent rule. The rulers of Lagash
   declared themselves "Kings of Kish" around 2450 BC, but failed to
   seriously control the region, facing several miltary challanges
   by the nearby Umma. Lugalzagesi, ensi or priest-king of Umma from
   around 2360-2335 BC, razed Lagash, and conquered Sumer, declaring
   himself "king of Erech and the Land". Unfortunately for him, all
   of this strife made Sumer ripe for conquest by an outsider and
   Sargon of Agade seized that opportunity.
   
   Sargon united both Sumer and the northern region of Akkad - from
   which Babylon would arise about four hundred years later - not
   very far from Kish. Evidence is sketchy, but he may have extended
   his realm from the Medeterranian Sea to the Indus River. This
   unity would survive its founder by less than 40 years. He built
   the city of Agade and established an enormous court there and he
   had a new temple erected in Nippur. Trade from across his new
   empire and beyond swelled the city, making it the center of world
   culture for a brief time.
   
   After Sargon's death, however, the empire was fraught with
   rebellion. Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson and third successor,
   quelled the rebellions through a series of military successes,
   extending his realm. He declared himself 'King of the Four
   corners of the World' and had himself deified. His divine powers
   must have failed him as the Guti, a mountain people, razed Agade
   and deposed Naram-Sin, ending that dynasty.
   
   After a few decades, the Guti presence became intollerable for
   the Sumerian leaders. Utuhegal of Uruk/Eresh rallied a coalition
   army and ousted them. One of his lieutenants, Ur-Nammu, usurped
   his rule and established the third Ur dynasty around 2112 BC. He
   consolidated his control by defeating a rival dynast in Lagash
   and soon gained control of all of the Sumerian city-states. He
   established the earliest known recorded law-codes and had
   constructed the great ziggurat of Ur, a kind of step-pyramid
   which stood over 60' tall and more than 200' wide. For the next
   century the Sumerians were extremely prosperous, but their
   society collapsed around 2000 B.C. under the invading Amorites. A
   couple of city-states maintained their independence for a short
   while, but soon they and the rest of the Sumerians were absorbed
   into the rising empire of the Babylonians.
   
    Culture
    
   Seated along the Euphrates River, Sumer had a thriving
   agriculture and trade industry. Herds of sheep and goats and
   farms of grains and vegetables were held both by the temples and
   private citizens. Ships plied up and down the river and
   throughout the Persian gulf, carrying pottery and various
   processed goods and bringing back fruits and various raw
   materials from across the region, including cedars from the
   Levant.
   
   Sumer was one of the first literate civilizations leaving many
   records of business transactions, and lessons from schools. They
   had strong armies, which with their chariots and phalanxes held
   sway over their less civilized neighbors. Perhaps the most
   lasting cultural remnants of the Sumerians though, can be found
   in their religion.
   
    Religion
    
   The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mark on the
   entire middle east. Not only are its temples and ziggurats
   scattered about the region, but the literature, cosmogony and
   rituals influenced their neighbors to such an extent that we can
   see echoes of Sumer in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition
   today. From these ancient temples, and to a greater extent,
   through cuneiform writings of hymns, myths, lamentations, and
   incantations, archaeologists and mythographers afford the modern
   reader a glimpse into the religious world of the Sumerians.
   
   Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god in the
   Sumerian pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful forces
   which often dictated a human's fate. The city leaders had a duty
   to please the town's patron deity, not only for the good will of
   that god or goddess, but also for the good will of the other
   deities in the council of gods. The priesthood initially held
   this role, and even after secular kings ascended to power, the
   clergy still held great authority through the interpretation of
   omens and dreams. Many of the secular kings claimed divine right;
   Sargon of Agade, for example claimed to have been chosen by
   Ishtar/Inanna. (Crawford 1991: 21-24)
   
   The rectangular central shrine of the temple, known as a 'cella,'
   had a brick altar or offering table in front of a statue of the
   temple's deity. The cella was lined on its long ends by many
   rooms for priests and priestesses. These mud-brick buildings were
   decorated with cone geometrical mosaics, and the occasional
   fresco with human and animal figures. These temple complexes
   eventually evolved into towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein & Kramer
   1983: 119)
   
   The temple was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians,
   singers, castrates and hierodules. Various public rituals, food
   sacrifices, and libations took place there on a daily basis.
   There were monthly feasts and annual, New Year celebrations.
   During the later, the king would be married to Inanna as the
   resurrected fertility god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt with
   below.
   
   When it came to more private matters, a Sumerian remained devout.
   Although the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had also
   created evil and misfortune. A Sumerian had little that he could
   do about it. Judging from Lamentation records, the best one could
   do in times of duress would be to "plead, lament and wail,
   tearfully confessing his sins and failings." Their family god or
   city god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not
   necessarily happen. After all, man was created as a broken, labor
   saving, tool for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's
   life, lay the underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein &
   Kramer 1983: pp.123-124)
   
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?

   From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can compile
   a picture of the universe's (anki) creation according to the
   Sumerians. The primeval sea (abzu) existed before anything else
   and within that, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed.
   The boundary between heaven and earth was a solid (perhaps tin)
   vault, and the earth was a flat disk. Within the vault lay the
   gas-like 'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein
   formed the stars, planets, sun, and moon. (Kramer, The Sumerians
   1963: pp. 112-113) Each of the four major Sumerian deities is
   associated with one of these regions. An, god of heaven, may have
   been the main god of the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his
   importance gradually waned. Ki is likely to be the original name
   of the earth goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag
   (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu
   (the lady who gave birth). It seems likely that these two were
   the progenitors of most of the gods.
   
III. What Deities did they worship?

  A. The Primary Deities
  
   It is notable that the Sumerians themselves may not have grouped
   these four as a set and that the grouping has been made because
   of the observations of Sumerologists.
   
   An
          An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the
          pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance
          gradually waned. It seems likely that he and Ki/Ninhursag
          were the progenitors of most of the gods. His primary
          temple was in Erech. He and Enlil give various gods,
          goddesses, and kings their earthly regions of influence
          and their laws. (See also Anu.)
          
   Ninhursag
          Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess,
          whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the
          mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady
          who gave birth). It seems likely that she and An were the
          progenitors of most of the gods. She is the mother goddess
          and assists in the creation of man. There she added
          constructive criticism to Enki as he shaped several
          versions of man from the heart of the clay over the Abzu.
          In Dilmun, she bore eight new trees from Enki. When he
          then ate her children, she cursed him with eight wounds.
          After being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse, she bore
          Enki eight new children which undid the wounds of the
          first ones. Most often she is considered Enlil's sister,
          but in some traditions she is his spouse instead. (See
          also Aruru
          
   Enlil
          An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil'). Enlil
          was the air- god and leader of the pantheon from at least
          2500 BC. He assumed most of An's powers. He is glorified
          as "'the father of the gods,' 'the king of heaven and
          earth,' ' the king of all the lands'". Kramer portrays him
          as a patriarchal figure, who is both creator and
          disciplinarian. Enlil effectuates the dawn, the growth of
          plants, and bounty. He also invents agricultural tools
          such as the plow. He is also banished to the nether world
          (kur) for his rape of Ninlil, his intended bride, but
          returns with the first product of their union, the moon
          god Sin (also known as Nanna). (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
          pp.118-121). Most often he is considered Ninlil's husband,
          with Ninhursag as his sister, but some traditions have
          Ninhursag as his spouse. (Jacobsen p.105) The Ninhursag.
          Enlil and a fox entreat her to return and undo her curse.
          (See also Ellil
          
   Enki
          Contrary to the translation of his name, Enki is not the
          lord of the earth, but of the abzu (the watery abyss and
          also semen) and of wisdom. This contradiction leads Kramer
          and Maier to postulate that he was once known as En-kur,
          lord of the underworld, which either contained or was
          contained in the Abzu. He did struggle with Kur as
          mentioned in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
          Underworld", and presumably was victorious and thereby
          able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm). He is a
          god of water, creation, and fertility. He also holds
          dominion over the land. He is the keeper of the me, the
          divine laws. (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3)
          The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki
          to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu,
          his center of worship. From there, he guards the me and
          imparts them on the people. He directs the me towards Ur
          and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his
          decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at
          having been given too little power from his decrees. In a
          different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more
          powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of
          ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver
          the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits
          and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives
          safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp.
          38-68)
          
          Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal
          after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by
          creatures with stones. These creatures may have been an
          extension of Kur itself. He is friendly to Inanna and
          rescued her from Kur by sending two sexless beings to
          negotiate with, and flatter Ereshkigal. They gave her the
          Bread of Life and the Water of Life, which restored her.
          
          He blessed the paradisiacal land of Dilmun, to have
          plentiful water and palm trees. With Ninhursag, he created
          eight new types of trees there. He then consumed these
          children and was cursed by Ninhursag, with one wound for
          each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf
          to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She
          joins with Enki again and bears eight new children, one to
          cure each of the wounds. At the direction of his mother
          Nammu and with some constructive criticism from Ninhursag,
          he created man from the heart of the clay over the Abzu.
          Several flawed versions were created before the final
          version was made. (See also Ea)
          
  III B. The Seven Who Decreed Fate
  
   In addition to the four primary deities, there were hundreds of
   others. A group of seven "decreed the fates" - these probably
   included the first four, as well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun
   god and a god of justice, and Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of
   love and war.
   
   Inanna
          Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war. Inanna
          also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of
          the Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to
          witness the funeral rites of her sister-in-law
          Ereshkigal's husband Gugalana, the Bull of Heaven. She
          takes precaution before setting out, by telling her
          servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or
          Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna
          knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti,
          questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then
          allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the
          underworld. After each gate, she is required to remove
          adornments and articles of clothing, until after the
          seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment
          against her and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the
          wall. (see Ereshkigal) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
          
          Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates
          two sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's
          suffering, and thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They
          restore her to life with the Bread of Life and the Water
          of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of
          death law. No one can leave without providing someone to
          stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
          past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't
          allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his
          throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes
          them twice by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu.
          Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies his
          sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi.
          She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld
          only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay
          the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the
          Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked
          the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the
          ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether
          world. (see also Dumuzi) Geshtinanna is also associated
          with growth, but where her brother rules over the spring
          harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested vines
          (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168).
          
          Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that
          of me. The me were universal decrees of divine authority.
          They are the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and
          civilization. Enki became the keeper of the me. Inanna
          comes to Enki and complains at having been given too
          little power from his decrees. In a different text, she
          gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts,
          crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna
          parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult
          center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to
          recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech
          with them. (See also Ishtar
          
          (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
          
   Nanna
          Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin. He is the
          product of Enlil's rape of Ninlil. (Kramer, 1963, pp.
          146-7.) Nanna was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p.
          66), appointed as king of that city by An and Enlil. He
          established Ur-Nammu as his mortal representative,
          establishing the third Ur dynasty. Nanna was married to
          Ningal and they produced Inanna and Utu. He rests in the
          Underworld every month, and there decrees the fate of the
          dead. He averts a flood of his city by visiting Enlil in
          Nippur on a boat loaded with gifts and pleading with him.
          He refuses to send aid to Inanna when she is trapped in
          the underworld.
          
   Utu
          Son of Nanna and Ningal, god of the Sun and of Justice,
          Utu goes to the underworld at the end of every day and
          while there decrees the fate of the dead. He aided Dumuzi
          in his flight from the galla demons by helping him to
          transform into different creatures. He opened the "ablal"
          of the Underworld for Enkidu, to allow him to escape, at
          the behest of Enki. Through Enki's orders, he also brings
          water up from the earth in order to irrigate Dilmun, the
          garden paradise, the place where the sun rises. He does
          not help Inanna when she has difficulties with her
          huluppu-tree. (See also Shamash
          
  III. C. The Annuna
  
   At the next level were fifty "great gods", possibly the same as
   the Anunna, although several gods confined to the underworld are
   specifically designated Anunna, An's children. (Kramer 1963: pp.
   122-123).
   
   Ninlil
          Ninlil was the intended bride of Enlil. Enlil raped her
          and was then banished to the nether world (kur). She
          follows him to the nether world, where she gives birth to
          the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). They have three
          more children in the nether world who remain there so that
          Sin may be allowed to leave. (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
          pp.146-7). In some texts she is Enlil's sister while
          Ninhursag is his bride. Her chief shrine was in the Tummal
          district of Nippur. (See also Babylonian Ninlil
          
   Nammu
          Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss and is Enki's
          mother. She instructs him on how, with the help of Nimmah/
          Ninhursag to create man.
          
   Ningal
          She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna and Utu. She
          begs and weeps before Enlil for them not to flood her
          city, Ur. (see also Babylonian Ningal and Nikkal of the
          Canaanites.
          
   Ereshkigal
          Ereshkigal is the queen of the underworld, who is either
          given to Kur in the underworld or given dominion over the
          underworld in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
          Underworld". She has a palace there and is due a visit by
          those entering Kur. When Inanna trespassed on her domain,
          Ereshkigal:
          
     ...fastened on Inanna the eye of death.
     She spoke against her the word of wrath.
     She uttered against her the cry of guilt
     
     She struck her.
     
     Inanna was turned into a corpse,
     ...And was hung from a hook on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer
     1983 p. 60)
     
          She was married to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. (See
          also Babylonian Ereshkigal
          
   Nidaba
          The goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba
          (palace archives).
          
   Ninisinna (Nininsinna)
          The patron goddess of the city Isin. She is the "hierodule
          of An"
          
   Dumuzi (demigod)
          He has a palace in Kur, and is due a visit by those
          entering Kur. He is Inanna's husband. In life, he was the
          shepherd king of Uruk. He successfully courted and married
          Inanna. Following the consummation of this marriage, he
          was given divine powers over the fertility of plants and
          animals, especially over grain. Upon her rescue from the
          dead, he was pursued by galla demons, which he eluded for
          a time with the aid of Utu. Eventually he was caught and
          slain; however, he was partially freed from his stay in
          the underworld by the actions of his sister Geshtinanna.
          Now he resides there only half of the year, while she
          lives there the other half year; this represents seasonal
          change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna). He is also known as
          Tammuz.
          
   Gilgamesh (demigod)
          After his adventures, he is given a palace in the nether
          world and venerated as lesser god of the dead. It is
          respectful to pay him a visit upon arrival. If he knew you
          in life or is of your kin he may explain the rules of Kur
          to you. (see Enkidu and Babylonian Gilgamesh)
          
   Geshtinanna (demigoddess)
          She is Dumuzi's sister. After his death, she visited him
          in the underworld with Inanna, and was allowed to take his
          place there for six months out of the year. Her time in
          the underworld and her periodic emergence from it are
          linked with her new divine authority over the autumn vines
          and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi)
          
   Gugalanna
          The Bull of Heaven, Ereshkigal's husband.
          
   Kur
          Kur is the name of the area which either was contained by
          or contained the Abzu. Enki also struggled with Kur as
          mentioned in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
          Underworld" and presumably was victorious and thereby able
          to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm). Kramer
          suggests that Kur was a dragon-like creature, calling to
          mind Tiamat and Leviathan. The texts suggests that Enki's
          struggle may have been with instruments of the land of kur
          - its stones or its creatures hurling stones. (See also
          Apsu and Tiamat.)
          
   Enkidu (hero)
          The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to the
          nether- world. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through
          a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku,
          objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of
          the underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes and
          sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a
          noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer
          1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast
          by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by
          Enki, rescued the hero.
          
          Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence:
          Nergal - Nergal is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with
          Ereshkigal, he is more prominent in Babylonian literature.
          Namtar
          Hubishag
          Ningishzida - the god of dawn
          
          Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace
          the scribe of Kur - due gifts, no palace
          
          The Sumerians had many other deities as well, most of
          which appear to have been minor.
          
IV. What about the Underworld?

          The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed, to some
          extent, by a composition about the death and afterlife of
          the king and warlord Ur-Nammu. After having died on the
          battlefield, Ur- Nammu arrives below, where he offers
          sundry gifts and sacrifices to the "seven gods" of the
          nether world:
          
     ...Nergal, [the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of
     the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld
     or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to
     Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer
     1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd, Inanna's husband],
     Namtar, Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in his own palace; he
     also presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to the "scribe of the
     nether- world."... [After arriving at his assigned spot]
     ...certain of the dead were turned over to him, perhaps to be
     his attendants, and Gilgamesh, his beloved brother, explained
     to him the rules and regulations of the nether world. (Kramer
     1963: p. 131)
     
          Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their
          respective gods, spent time in the underworld as well. The
          sun journeyed there after setting, and the moon rested
          there at the end of the month. Both Utu and Nanna
          '''decreed the fate' of the dead" while there. (Kramer
          1963: p. 132) Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched
          the dead's thirst with water. The gods of the nether
          world, the deceased, and his city, were prayed to for the
          benefit of the dead and his family.
          
          The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the
          nether world as well. In the prologue, Enki sails for the
          Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she was given
          over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures with stones. The
          main body of the tale includes a trip to the nether world
          as well. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a
          gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku,
          objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of
          the underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes and
          sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a
          noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer
          1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast
          by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by
          Enki, rescued the hero.
          
          Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth
          reminiscent of the Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She
          sets out to witness the funeral rites of her sister-in-law
          Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She
          takes precaution before setting out, by telling her
          servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or
          Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna
          knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti,
          questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then
          allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the
          underworld. After each gate, she is required to remove
          adornments and articles of clothing, until after the
          seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment
          against her and Ereshkigal slays her and hangs her on the
          wall (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
          
          Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates
          two sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's
          suffering, and thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They
          restore her to life with the Bread of Life and the Water
          of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of
          death law. No one can leave without providing someone to
          stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
          past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't
          allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his
          throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes
          them twice by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu.
          Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies his
          sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi.
          She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld
          only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay
          the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the
          Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked
          the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the
          ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether
          world. Although he had always been a shepherd (and
          possibly a mortal king) he was blessed with the powers of
          fertility following the consummation of his marriage to
          Inanna in "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi".
          
     As the farmer, let him make the fields fertile,
     As the shepherd, let him make the sheepfolds multiply,
     Under his reign let there be vegetation,
     Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p.
     45)
     
          Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her
          brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules
          over the autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p.
          168)
          
V. What are me anyway?

          Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that
          of me. The me
          
   were universal decrees of divine authority. They are the
   invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. The me
   were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and
   impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship.
   From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people. He
   directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the
   world with his decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains
   at having been given too little power from his decrees. In a
   different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more
   powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me.
   Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult
   center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the
   me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer &
   Maier 1989: pp. 38- 68)
   
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
literature. What are they?

   Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and are reflected in
   writings of the Bible. As late as Ezekiel, there is mention of a
   Sumerian deity. In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet sees women of Israel
   weeping for Tammuz (Dumuzi) during a drought.
   
   The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much
   earlier, in the book of Genesis. As in Genesis, the Sumerians'
   world is formed out of the watery abyss and the heavens and earth
   are divinely separated from one another by a solid dome. The
   second chapter of Genesis introduces the paradise Eden, a place
   which is similar to the Sumerian Dilmun, described in the myth of
   "Enki and Ninhursag". Dilmun is a pure, bright, and holy land. It
   is blessed by Enki to have overflowing, sweet water. Enki fills
   it with lagoons and palm trees. He impregnates Ninhursag and
   causes eight new plants to grow from the earth. Eden, "in the
   East" (Gen. 2:8) has a river which also "rises" or overflows, to
   form four rivers including the Tigris and Euphrates. It too is
   lush and has fruit bearing trees. (Gen. 2:9-10) In the second
   version of the creation of man "The Lord God formed man out of
   the clay of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of
   life, and so man became a living being." Enki and Ninmah
   (Ninhursag) use a similar method in creation man. Nammu, queen of
   the abyss and Enki's mother, bids Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of
   the clay that is over the Abzu " and "give it form" (Kramer &
   Maier p. 33) From there the similarities cease as the two create
   several malformed humans and then the two deities get into an
   argument.
   
   Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find a possible parallel to
   the creation of Eve. Enki consumed the plants that were
   Ninhursag's children and so was cursed by Ninhursag, receiving
   one wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's
   behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She
   joins with him again and bears eight new children, each of whom
   are the cure to one of his wounds. The one who cures his rib is
   named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of months, (Kramer &
   Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she who makes
   live. This association carries over to Eve. (Kramer, History
   Begins at Sumer 1981: pp. 143-144) In Genesis, Eve is fashioned
   from Adam's rib and her name hawwa is related to the Hebrew word
   hay or living. (New American Bible p. 7.) The prologue of
   "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" may contain the
   predecessor to the tree of knowledge of good and evil. This tree
   not only contains a crafty serpent, but also Lilith, the
   legendary first wife of Adam. The huluppu tree is transplanted by
   Inanna from the banks of the Euphrates to her garden in Uruk,
   where she finds that:
   
   ...a serpent who could not be charmed
   made its nest in the roots of the tree,
   The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree,
   And the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein
   and Kramer 1983: p. 8)
   
   Another possible Sumerian carry-over related to the Fall of man
   is the lack of "pangs of childbearing" for those in Dilmun. In
   particular, Ninhursag gives birth in nine days, not nine months,
   and the pass "like good princely cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145)
   or "fine oil" (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 25)
   
   The clearest Biblical parallel comes from the story of the Flood.
   In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra is informed of the
   gods decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He too
   weathers the deluge aboard a huge boat. The flood lasts a long
   time, but Ziusudra comes to rest within seven days and not the
   Biblical forty days. He does not receive a covenant, but is given
   eternal life.
   
VII. Sources

   I've added brief reviews of the type included in an article I
   posted to alt.mythology which Mythtext grabbed and has used their
   bibliographies section.
   
     * Crawford, Harriet, Sumer and the Sumerians, Cambridge
       University Press, Cambridge, 1991. (This is a briefer but
       more up to date archaeological look at the Sumerians than
       you'll find with Kramer. There isn't much mythic content in
       this one, but there are many wonderful figures detailing city
       plans, and the structure of temples and other buildings.)
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, Myths of Enki, the
       Crafty God, Oxford University Press, New York,1989. The most
       recent work that I've been able to find by Kramer. They
       translate and analyze all of the availible myths which
       include Enki. I've only seen it availible in hardcover and I
       haven't seen it in a bookstore yet.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah The Sumerians The University of Chicago
       Press, Chicago,1963. (This is a more thorough work than
       Kramer's Section at the end of Inanna, but the intervening 20
       or so years of additional research and translation allow
       Inanna's section to be perhaps more complete, regarding
       mythology.)
     * Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, Inanna: Queen of
       Heaven and Earth, Harper & Row, NY, 1983. (Ms. Wolkstein's
       verse translations of the Inanna/Dummuzi cycle of myths are
       excellent, and Kramer gives a 30 or so page description of
       Sumerian cosmology and society at the end).
     * The New American Bible, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New
       York, 1970.
       
VIII. Other books of interest

     * Algaze, Guillermo, "The Uruk Expansion", Current
       Anthropology, Dec. 1989. This article helped with the
       introduction material.
     * Hooke, S. H. Middle Eastern Mythology, Penguin Books, New
       York, 1963. This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian,
       Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite, and Hebrew mythologic material
       in brief and with comparisons.
     * Fagan, B. M., People of the Earth, Glenview Il, Scott
       Forsman, 1989. This archaeology text book helped provide some
       of the introductory material.
     * Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Treasures of Darkness, Yale
       University Press, New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to
       Kramer, Jacobsen explores Mesopotamian religious development
       from early Sumerian times through the Babylonian Enuma Elish.
       Most of the book winds up being on the Sumerians.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, History Begins at Sumer, University of
       Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1981. (This text runs
       through a bunch of "firsts" that Kramer attributes to the
       Sumerians. I only looked at it briefly, but it seemed to
       contain about the same information as was in The Sumerians
       only in a "Wow neat!" format instead of something more
       coherent.)
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, Sumerian Mythology, Harper & Brothers,
       New York, 1961. This slim volume contains much of the
       mythologic material that wound up in The Sumerians but
       concentrated in one spot and without much cultural or
       historical detail.
     * Pritchard J. B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the
       Old Testament, Princeton, 1955. I understand that there is a
       later edition of this work. It seems to be the authoritative
       source for all complete texts of the Sumerians, Babylonians,
       Canaanites, Hittites, and perhaps other groups as well. It's
       pricy but many libraries have a copy.
     * Stephenson, Neal, Snowcrash, Bantam Books, New York, 1992.
       Cyberpunk meets "Inanna, Enki, and the Me".
     * Wooley, C. Leonard, Excavations at Ur, 1954. This is one of
       the earliest works on the subject, and as such is not as
       complete as the others although it is of historical interest.
       
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