Several weeks before the failure and evasion of Emanuele Fenzi, the banker, in Florence, January, 1892, the woman specially referred to in these pages as a fortune-teller, was, more for her own pleasure than mine, consulting the cards to find out whether I would find the lost books of Livy, or the Annals of Claudian, or something else in the way of transcendentalcartomancy, when she found that certain incidents or predictions not connected with the main inquiry kept forcing themselves forward, like unbidden guests, into the play: as often happens when the twenty-five demons who are always invoked at the beginning of such divination are more than usually friendly, and not only come in person but bring with them all theirfriends. The chief intruder on this occasion was a distinguished, greator rich, man, with whom I was to have, or about whom there would be, un gran' disturbo, that is, great trouble and rumour, noise or report. Through him I was to lose a small sum, but narrowly escape a great loss.

I had not forgotten, but I gave no heed to this suggestion by Turanna, when some weeks later the failure of Fenzi the banker made a tremendous disturbo in fair Florence. By which fraudulent bankruptcy I did indeed lose four hundred and sixty francs; but as I had been on the point of depositing with Emanuel–who did but little credit to his name–avery much larger sum which would have caused me serious inconvenience, my culpable neglect of business in this instance saved me more money than I should have made all the winter by diligently attending to it. Then I was reminded of the prediction by my Sybil, and I give very accurately what I remember of it On asking the divineress if she remembered what she had said, and how the cards had "come," she replied "Yes," and wrote me out these words:–

"When the cards were 'made'– quando si fecero le carte–they announced that you ought to have money from (or with) a great signore, and through this would he greatly troubled, but the trouble would come to no great loss (veniva a essere non tanto grande); and inthis disturbance was involved a journey, between you and the other signore.

"And you will come well out of it, but there will be tears and great trouble for him."

Truly there was a voyage–a shooting of the moon, and a moving between two days– unto Corfu, as it is said, by the banker. The two accounts–mine and the witch's–are interesting as setting forth exactly the prediction as we both recalled it. Be it observed that, as the cards fell, the interpretation was perfectly correct. "Hæc ita clara,ita explorata sunt, ut frustra sit qui testium nubem in fidem vocaverit."

Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, such as the "Othea" of Christina de Pisa,establish Venus as dealing out hearts, and her connection with lucky cards. She became the Queen of Hearts at a very early period. It is worth noting in this connection that Friday, the dies Veneris, was always a lucky day, especially for marriage, till the priests spoiled it. The Turks still insist on this great truth, because, as they believe, it was on a Friday that Adam married Eve; Solomon, Balkis; Joseph, Zuleika (i.e., Mrs. Potiphar); Moses, Sisera; and Mahomed, Chadidscha and Ayesha. For according to authentic records given by the– Persian and Turkish poets, Joseph, it appears, after the little incident recorded in the Bible, subsequently "thought better of it," and Mrs. P––, as women always do, had her own way in the end. Alors–vivè le Vendredi!

Every reader of these pages will remember to have learned, long ago, that"great Pan is dead," and how the fact was revealed to Thamnus, an Egyptian, who proclaimed it to the midnight by command, whereupon there was heard such a wailing of nymphs, satyrs, dryads, oreads, and all the sprites who live in woods or streams, that it would seem as if all the fair humanities of olden time–mortem obversari ante oculos–did seegrim death itself before their eyes, "since 'twas in Pan that they all held their life." All of which Eusebius, and in later times an exceeding sweet English poet, have discussed, while others have contended that he isnot dead at all, but lives for ever on in all Nature. "This thing did often occupy my thought," therefore it was with a strange feeling, like that which was felt by him who, opening an Etruscan tomb, saw, for a minuteonly, an ancient warrior –perfect as in life, ere his face fell into ashes–that I discovered that in the Romagna Toscana there is a perfect solution of the question and a reconcilement of this difference of opinion. For there the great Pan did indeed once die–for the love, as it seems, of some beautiful nymph–but now lives as a spirit who is exceeding kind and gracious to all who approach him with the proper incantation or hymn in her name, the which scongiurazione I, to my great joy, succeeded in obtaining. What I was told of him was in these words–he being called Pano:–

"Then one asks of him some favour, as that the country may become beautiful" (this, I take it, is a prayer for good crops), "or according to that which one requires."

From all which we may observe that even in the end of the tail of this great serpent-century Pan still lives. And of those who wail for, and sympathise with, and invoke him, it cannot be said with Salvator Rosa:–

"Non è con loro una voce Etrusca.

("There is not with them one Etruscan voice.")

Though indeed there are not many of them, for Pan is now one of the obscurest and least-known spirits.

It is significant of ancient Pan that he was noted for his loss of lady-loves. He mourned for Echo, and Syrinx turned to a reed to escape him, so he made of her pan-pipes on which he wailed her evanishment. She was really "rapt from him in a field at eventide," and it was her voice which heever after awoke in the Pandean pipes, which in latter days became the church organ. But as a loser of loves Pan is alone among the deities.

Were the name wanting this circumstance would be a clue. Whether Pan was ever evoked in Latin times by memories of Syrinx or Echo, I do not know, but it is very significant that peasant tradition has preserved this verypeculiar feature of his history. Pan, the great god of earth, made of his memory an endless tomb.

But though as god of the earth, fields, and crops, Pan is a benevolent spirit, yet as one who may be offended, and who has the power to destroy the harvest, he is also dreaded. From another authority in the Romagna Toscana, I learn by letter that "he is regarded by old men in Premilcuore asa spirito maligno, because

when the corn is high he comes in roaring winds which beat it down. As itdoes not rise again, it cannot be sold, and for this the peasants curse him."

A certificate signed by C. Placidi, Dec. 12, 1891, now before me, atteststhat: "Here in Premilcuore much is remembered of the spirit Pano."

Pan, it may be observed, was, as a windy spirit, also feared of yore. Hence the panic terror (Gazaus, p.174). And an ass was often sacrificed to him (Ovid, Fasti i., 425).

I have given a great deal of cautious and fearful apology in this my book, as regards possible errors or improvisations in tradition and especially incantations. But I must remark of this one to Pan (and it may be said of nearly all of them), that any true scholar critic, and above all true poet, cannot fail to at once perceive that it is a composition far above the intellectual capacity of a woman who actually could not be made to take an interested comprehension of the fable of Pan, or to see how it agreed with her verses. That is, she did not actually understand what she repeated, which effectively disposes of the question as to whether she altogether invented it. That some and perhaps many of these incantations onlyset forth a shadowy or shifting form of what is said, or may be said, incalling certain folletti, I have already clearly declared, but that others are used as here given is also true. Thus in several cases those who were consulted, said there were incantations referring to this or that spirit which they could not recall. But in all cases they existed.

Acpording to Friedrich, who has devoted a chapter to the subject (Die Weltköper, &c., 1864), Pan and his seven reeds sets forth the music of the spheres, when this god is the chorus leader of the heavenly dances, who playing on his pipe inspires the Seven Spheres, and the divine harmony (Serv. to Virgil, Eclogues ii., 31). Hence Pan is invoked inan Orphic hymn (xi., 6) as:–

Which idea of the All-god of Nature and the seven planets suggested, as Ithink, a verse to Emerson:–

It was just at the time when he wrote this that my old schoolmaster, J. Bronson Alcott, published his Orphic Sayings in the Dial. And they were very intimate in those days.

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between the modern Maso and the ancient Mas is very great. A single coincidence, be it of name or attribute, or incident, gives basis for nothing more than an hypothesis, or supposition; two, as ofname and attribute, entitles us to form a theory; three, as when both are borne out by established tradition and testimony, constitute authentic history. In this case the latter is wanting, but great allowance must be made for the fact that Maso appears in company with a number of others of whose authenticity there can be little doubt

It is to be particularly observed that in the prayer to Mars given by Cato (de re rustica, cap: 141), which is of very great antiquity, this deity is, as Panzer (Bayerische Sagen, p.525) observes, invoked solely as a god of crops, "ist ganz als Ärntegott dargestellt," and that all the offerings brought to him indicate that he was a god of harvests. This view of Mars, according to Panzer, is confirmed by passages in the Eugubœan tablets, so far as they have been deciphered.

Elias Schedius (De Dis Germanis) has gathered together much learning to prove that Mars autem nullus alius nisi Sol (" Mars is none other than the Sun"), that is to say, the fructifying and vivifying principle of nature. And it is as such that he appears in old Etruscan mythology.

"The real god of the world below among the Tuscans, or Tusker," writes OTTFRIED MÜLLER, "was called Mantus, who was therefore compared with Dispater. In Etruscan histories the name of Mantua was derived from him. With him was worshipped a goddess of the lower realms–the Mania. … This was a truly Etruscan divinity. … To the strange and terrible gods to whom the Tuscan libri fatales give human sacrifices … belong Mantus and Mania. Terrible to the old Italians seemed Mania … who is inseparable from the Tuscan faith of the Lares, being allied to the Manes. She was an awful divinity to whom, under TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, boys were offered. Her fearful image–afterwards a child's toy–was in early times hung on doors to avert contamination.This Mania was the mother or grandmother of the Manes, also the mother of the Lares." MÜLLER indulges in much speculation as to thischthonic goddess, or deity of darkness.

And she still lives in Tuscany, and is called Mania della Notte (Mania of the Night), but regarded simply as the Nightmare, and Succuba, and as a mysterious nocturnal spirit inspiring wanton dreams.

It has been suggested to me that "the Greek word mania, meaning insanity or madness, has nothing to do with the Latin mania," which to a degree weakens

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"Ora manusque tua lavimus,
Feronia, lympha" -- HORACE, Sat. i., v. 24
There is a kind of argument very much in vogue among historians of the Mommsen class. It consists in picking a small flaw in a legend or incident, or even offering an unproved conjecture of one's own, as Mommsen does, and then boldly assuming from it that all is false. No heed whatever is taken of the fact that this incident, or narrative, taken with others as a whole, may have a basis in truth -- no -- all must go at a guess.

I beg the reader to bear this in mind as regards several chapters, of which the following is a type, requiring a broader and more liberal method of judgment.

There is a goddess of whose identity with a modern spirit or folletto, there can be little question. Feronia, according to MÜLLER, was the ancient goddess of the market-place and fairs. This would, as a matter of course, identify her with, and make her the patron of, all strolling characters who frequent such places. MÜLLER expresses a doubt whether she was really a member of the Etruscan Heiligthum, or mythology, since VARRO claims her as Sabine. But as she had temples in Etruria, he deems it possible that she was common to both races. The ancients were at a loss where to place her among the deities; she appears, however,to be a goddess of the earth, and allied to Mania, "which makes it intelligible how it was in her power to give to the Prænestic Herilus three souls from the lower world." But what is most important of all for my purpose is that she was feared, and that people brought her offerings.

Feronia is at the present day "a strega-folletta–witch-spirit who goes wandering about the country begging alms in disguise. When the peasants are liberal to her all goes well with them; but should they give her nothing then they suffer for it She bewitches children, oxen, horses, and all the beasts che tengono nella stalla–which are kept in stables."

A wandering witch, who exacts offerings, and who is rather evil than good, is a very legitimate descendant from a goddess of the markets, and who,as a form of Mania, is prone to mischief and revenge. There can be no question but that the ancient Feronia was Persephonic or chthonic, or a queen of the realm below : therefore a witch now, who, if not propitiated, inflicts on the peasants what they most dread–loss of children and cattle. Sabine or Etruscan, she still lives, and is much feared in Tuscany.

Since writing the last line I have learned that Feronia haunts market-places, specially "Perche e lo spirito del mercato." I have, regarding her, also the following, which was attributed to Impusa, but which, I am quite sure, was an error of the copyist:–

"Feronia was an old woman who went about begging in the country, yet she always had a gran pulitica– that is, she was intelligent or shrewd or very cunning in manners–and, as one would have believed, she was a witch. All who gave her alms were very fortunate, and their affairs prospered. And if people could give her nothing because of their poverty, when they returned home after the sun rose (dopo chiaro) they found abundant gifts–enough to support all the fainily–so that henceforth all went well with them; but if any who were rich gave her nothing, and had evil hearts, she cursed them thus:–

" 'Siate maledetti Da me che vi maladisco Di vero cuore! E cosi i vostr 'affari Possono andare A rotto di collo! Fame e malattie! Cosi non avrete, Non avrete piu bene!'

56     EUTRUSCAN ROMAN REMAINS.

(" 'Be ye all accursed By me who curse you With my heart and soul! May your lives for ever Go to utter ruin; Illness and starvation Be ever in your dwelling !')

"By this they knew she was a witch. But when she was dead she became terrible, and did much harm. However, when those who had wronged her, and knew it, went to her tomb and begged pardon they were always sure to obtainit."

The incident of the begging, and the elegant style and distinguished air indicate a character like that of Juno and Ceres combined. The curse attributed to her has a great strength, and may be of extreme antiquity. The connection of Feronia with Mania explains why she was feared as a witch. And it is very remarkable indeed that while MÜLLER lays stress on the fact that she had offerings brought to her, the modern Tuscan accountmakes it a main incident. Taking her altogether, Feronia appears to be exactly what such a goddess would naturally come to be in the minds of thepeople at a stage while they still believed in and feared her, and before she had sunk to a mere reminiscence in a Mährchen. And it is the Mährchen, or child's tale, alone which is chiefly sought by folk-lorists who have no conception of the extent to which the, as yet, living myth exists.

The Roman-Etruscan Feronia was very famous for the extent of the offerings made to her. "All who dwelt near brought her the first fruits, and many offerings, so that in time an immense quantity of gold and silverformed a treasure in her temple, which was all carried away by the soldiers of Hannibal" (Livy, xxvi., II; Silius Italicus, Pun. xiii. ; Preller, Rom. Myth., 377). This agrees with the modern story of her exacting tribute. Again, she was the special protectress of the freed slaves–that is a friend of the poor–and the Libertini inRome made offerings to her (Livy, xxii., 1.). This is curiously identical with the legend. If, as MÜLLER asserts, Feronia was a duplicate of Persephone, who was often a counterpart of the charitable Ceres, this would explain the very singular statement that the poor always received their gifts from her "after the sun rose," i.e., they came, or weregiven, during the night. Her market and temple were also a great resortfor merchants and traders, which seems to cast some light on the otherwise uncalled-for statement that she was of gran pulitica–very shrewd. The modern Feronia is also a great friend to the poor.

But there is yet another reason why Feronia may have retained a reputation as a witch or wonder-worker. She was of old especially identified withthe great miracle, of which so much was made during the Middle Ages, of walking on red-

FERONIA     57

hot ploughshares or glowing coa1s. As appears by the following passage from Strabo, Lib. 5:–

"Sub monte Soracte urbs est Feronia, quo nomine et Dea quædam nuncupatur, quam finitimi miro dignantur honore. Eodem in loco ipsius templum est, mirificum sacrigenus habens. Nam qui ejus numine afflantur, nudis pedibus prunas calcant. Eò ingens mortalium multitudo convenit, et celebritatis ipsius, quæ quotannis celebratur, gratia, paritur et spectaculi."

The ordeal of hot coals was very commonly applied to witches, and it is not improbable that the accused appealed to Feronia to protect them, owingto some tradition. One thing is apparent both in the ancient and modernFeronia, that she is, or was, a protector and friend of the poor, one ofslaves and refugees, as now of paupers. The identification of the eldergoddess with the ordeal indicates protection and benevolence. On which interesting subject the reader may consult I. Roth, De more quo apud plerosque Europæos populos per firrum candens ardentes prunas rogumque probatur, Ulm, 1676. Lescher, De probatione rerum dubiarum perignem facto, Leipzig, 1695. Eckard, De ritu antiquissimo per igneset carbones candendes incedendi, and Nork, Sitten und Gebräuche der Deutschen.

It will be seen, therefore, that the modern Feronia corresponds to the ancient character of the same name in many ways. And I would call attention to the fact that beyond the name itself (for which I indeed inquired) nothing was by me suggested or demanded.

According to Fraser (The Etruscans), "Feronia in Etruria held an honourable position, for not only was she goddess of Falerii, but she had a sanctuary also at the Etruscan town of Losna (Latin, Luna). The name of this town, Losna, is another proof that Feronia is the goddess ofthe Dawn, for it comes from the Greek los or las, light."

Monti has written a very beautiful, though rather feeble poem, called theFeroniade, in which the heroine, as a goddess, approaches much more closely to the same character as set forth in modern popular legend than to the stately goddess Feronia of classic tradition. For she is with him at first only a small sylvan Etruscan deity, the queen of the violets, who wanders through ravines and forests, or "a nymph."

"Ella per fiere Balze e foreste erro gran tempo Una ninfa già fu delle propinque Selve leggiadra abitatrice, ed era II sun nome Feronia."

This is altogether our Feronia, and not the great goddess of the olden time,

58     ETRUSCAN ROMAN ROMAINS

which she is subsequently represented as being–the reason for which very evidently was that Monti began with an inspiration derived from the popular Tuscan legend, and, as he wrote, by going back into classic lore for material, entirely changed the character of his heroine. This is absolutely the only explanation which can be offered of this manifest blunder.

SILVANO.

"Silvanus"(the god of fields and cattle) "has still dominion in the land."–The Cities of Etruria, by GEORGE DENNIS, vol. i., p.229.

"Quin et Silvanos Faunosque et deorum genera silvis ac sua numina tanquamet coelo attributa credimus."

"Fama est, Cyparissum puerum ab ipso fuisse amatum, quare ubi in arborem sui nominis mutatus fuisset, Cupressum manibus semper gestasse Sylvanus dictus fuit."–De Hermaproditorum, Monstrosorum, &C., Caspari Bauhini, 1614.

Silviano was described to me, as "Lo spirito dei boschi" ("the spirit of the forests or woods"), and his peculiarities were set forth as follows:–

"Silviano is very fond of annoying the peasants who burn charcoal (chefanno le cataste di carbone–literally, who pile up the heaps and then ignite them). And when all the sticks are piled, then comes Silviano and upsets them, and the contadini begin to quarrel among themselves, accusing one another of the deed. So they have to begin their work over again. Then Silviano roars with laughter, and the men begin to swear and perhaps to fight, every one thinking that the other is laughing at him. And while all this is going on Silviano piles up the wood again–to their great amazement when they return to work.

"This happened once to two men, and they thought it must be a miracle worked by some saint. So they went to the parocco, or parish priest,and told him of it. So he went there and examined, but found nothing remarkable, and told them they were fools for their pains, and so returned with all his precissione (procession), persuaded that nothing wonderful had happened.

"But good-natured as Silviano is, he is altrettanto vendiccativa –tolerably revengeful. And from that day, whether in wood or grove–nella macchia o sia nel boscho–nothing went well with them. Other men found their work all done to hand for them, while theirs was spoiled. And this time they went to an old witch who understood the business, and knew what to do. And she said:–

" 'E il folletto Silviano, Che l'avete contradito, E ora li vi fa tutti I dispetti, ma dell'erba Che vi daro vi fara tornare In la sua buona grazia. (" 'Tis the spirit Silviano, Unto him ye were ungracious, Therefore he has made these troubles For you–but I'll give you something, 'Tis an herb which will restore you Once again to his good graces.')

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60     ETRUSCAN ROMAN REMIANS.

"So they returned again into his good graces, and never did anything moreto offend him. And they learned from this a lesson not to go and call on priests when there had been a spirit present."

Silvianus is plainly enough the old Roman Silvanus, of whom Preller remarks: "He was like Faunus, a good spirit, but now and then a spuk Geist who frightened people. He was identified with everything beautiful, romantic, and rural. Planted pleasant fields, openings in the forest, wherever there was a cool shelter, a shady grotto, or where a murmuring brook attracted the shepherd in the mid-day heat, there was a spot always sacred to Silvanus." So he became very dear to all rural folk; he was likeone of themselves, and traces of this love are to be felt in this Tuscantale.

For reasons, which I have not space to give, I would here say that the ancient identification of Sylvanus with the cypress-tree fully explains his connection with charcoal-burning and burners. And as a spirit who specially haunts such men Silviano is identical with Rubezahl of Germany. PRELLER declares that the Silvanæ, or Silviæ wood-nymphs,belong rather to the German, Celtic, and Slavic races, than to the Latin. But why? May not Rubezahl himself be of Italian birth? Silvanus was the son of a river-god and a she-goat, and everything related of him is far more suggestive of pastoral Italy than of wild Germany.

The utter heathenism of this story and its "moral" cannot have escaped the reader. The narrator was as absolutely a heathen herself as any who ever lived in the time of Tarquin, and never missed an opportunity to show that she considered the worship of the spirits of the olden time, and all its incantations and ceremonies, far superior to the Roman Catholic, for which latter she had a special aversion. With the old strege this religion of ancient times is not folk-lore but a living faith, andI was often as strangely moved by this reality as if I had been taken back two thousand years.

This chapter, and others, therefore suggest the possibility that the Northern mythology of goblins may have been originally of Italian origin, or from a common source.

PALÓ.

This deity was described to me in the following words:–

"Paló is a spirit of the fields, vines, meadows, for all kinds of crops, and when men work, be it in planting maize, or in the vineyards, they must never forget to say:–

" 'Lo spirito Paló Sara quello Che mi fara La buona fortuna!'

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